Wikipedia

Searches for Noah's Ark

Mount Ararat (39°42′N, 44°17′E), satellite image – a stratovolcano, 5,137 metres (16,854 ft) above sea level, prominence 3,611 metres (11,847 ft), believed to have erupted within the last 10,000 years. The main peak is at the centre of the image.

Searches for Noah's Ark have been reported since antiquity, as ancient scholars sought to affirm the historicity of the Genesis flood narrative by citing accounts of relics recovered from the Ark.[1]:43–47[2] With the emergence of biblical archaeology in the 19th century, the potential of a formal search attracted interest in alleged discoveries and hoaxes. By the 1940s, expeditions were being organized to follow up on these apparent leads.[3][4]:8–9 Despite many expeditions, no physical proof of Noah's Ark has been found.[5][6] Many of the supposed findings and methods are regarded as pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology by geologists and archaeologists.[7][8]:581–582[9]:72–75[10]

Conflicting opinions

Modern organized searches for the ark tend to originate in American evangelical circles. According to Larry Eskridge,

An interesting phenomenon that has arisen within twentieth-century conservative American evangelism – the widespread conviction that the ancient Ark of Noah is embedded in ice high atop Mount Ararat, waiting to be found. It is a story that has combined earnest faith with the lure of adventure, questionable evidence with startling claims. The hunt for the ark, like evangelism itself, is a complex blend of the rational and the supernatural, the modern and the premodern. While it acknowledges a debt to pure faith in a literal reading of the Scriptures and centuries of legend, the conviction that the Ark literally lies on Ararat is a recent one, backed by a largely twentieth-century canon of evidence that includes stories of shadowy eyewitnesses, tales of mysterious missing photographs, rumors of atheistic conspiracy, and pieces of questionable "ark wood" from the mountain. (...) Moreover, it skirts the domain of pop pseudoscience and the paranormal, making the attempt to find the ark the evangelical equivalent of the search for Bigfoot or the Loch Ness monster. In all these ways, it reveals much about evangelicals' distrust of mainstream science and the motivations and modus operandi of the scientific elite.[11]:245

Ark-seeker Richard Carl Bright considers the search for the ark a religious quest, dependent on God's blessing for its success. Bright is also confident that there is a multinational government conspiracy to hide the "truth" about the ark:

I firmly believe that the governments of Turkey, Russia, and the United States know exactly where the ark sits. They suppress the information, but (...) God is in charge. The structure will be revealed in its time. We climb the mountain and search, hoping it is, in fact, God's time as we climb. Use us, O Lord, is our prayer.[12]

Antiquity

Further information: Genesis flood narrative, Noah's Ark, and Mountains of Ararat
Cast of a rock relief of Sennacherib carved at Mount Judi. The Talmud suggests he visited Noah's Ark in the 7th century BCE.

At the end of the Genesis flood narrative, when the flooding subsides, the Ark is said to come to rest "on the mountains of Ararat."[13] The Book of Jubilees specifies a particular mountain, naming it "Lûbâr".[14] The Torah does not describe any particular holiness about the Ark, and so little attention is given to its fate after Noah's departure.[15]

According to the Talmud, the Assyrian king Sennacherib found a beam from the Ark and, reasoning that it was the god who delivered Noah from the flood, fashioned the wood into an idol.[16] This expands upon the biblical account of Sennacherib worshiping in the temple of Nisroch, interpreting the god's name to be derived from the Hebrew word neser ("beam").[17] A Midrash regarding the Book of Esther says that the gallows erected by Haman was built using a beam from the Ark.[18][15]

Opinions on the location of "the mountains of Ararat" have varied since antiquity. Interpretations of the Noah story were influenced by the Armenian flood myth about Masis, and the Syrian version about Qardu in Corduene, until these locations became conflated.[19]:336 The targumim for Genesis 8 interpret "Ararat" as "Qadron" and "Kardu" (i.e., Corduene).[20][21][22]:233 In his recounting of the Flood, Josephus seeks to link the story of Noah to the Sumerian flood myth as described by Berossus, Hieronymus of Cardia, Mnaseas of Patrae, and Nicolaus of Damascus, thereby placing Noah's Ark on a mountain in Armenia, where he says relics from the ship are exhibited "to this day."[1]:43–47[23]:329–330 However, Josephus later describes Carrhae as the location of the Ark, again claiming that the locals would show the remains to visitors.[24]:237 Jerome of Stridon translated "Ararat" as "Armenia" in the Vulgate[25], whereas the Armenians themselves associated Noah's Ark with Corduene until the 11th century.[19]:336

In the early Christian church, stories about the remains of Noah's Ark were regarded as evidence that the ship had been located, identified, and preserved in some form. This became useful in Christian apologetics for affirming the events of the Pentateuch as fact.[4]:6–7 Epiphanius of Salamis wrote: "Thus even today the remains of Noah’s ark are still shown in Cardyaei."[26]:48[27]:75–77 Similarly, John Chrysostom proposed to ask non-believers: "Have you heard of the Flood--of that universal destruction? That was not just a threat, was it? Did it not really come to pass---was not this mighty work carried out? Do not the mountains of Armenia testify to it, where the Ark rested? And are not the remains of the Ark preserved there to this very day for our admonition?"[27]:78 However, with the widespread adoption of Christianity in Europe, the apologetic value of Ark relics diminished, as there were far fewer non-believers to persuade.[4]:7

By the 5th century, a legend had arisen that Jacob of Nisibis scaled a mountain in search of Noah's Ark. As related by Faustus of Byzantium, Jacob and his party traveled to the mountains of Armenia, and "came to Sararad mountain which was in the borders of the Ayraratean lordship, in the district of Korduk'." Near the summit, an angel visited him in his sleep, instructing him to climb no further. In consolation, the angel provided Jacob with a board taken from the Ark. Jacob brought the artifact back to the city, which is said to have preserved the relic ever since.[2] Agathangelos relates a similar story, although not directly related to the Ark, in which the 3rd century Armenian king Tiridates scales Masis and brings back eight rocks to use in the foundation of new churches.[28]:35

Middle Ages and early modern period

In the 7th century, the Etymologiae states that remains of the Ark are still at Mount Ararat in Armenia, whereas the Quran describes the Ark landing on "al-jūdī," which is understood to refer to Qardu, now known as Mount Judi.[29]:298[30][31]:683–684 Heraclius is reported to have scaled Mount Judi to visit the site of the Ark in either 628 or 629.[32]:78 One legend claims that Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb removed the Ark from a site near Nisibis and used the wood to construct a mosque.[33]:284

Despite the longstanding association of Armenia with Ararat in Western Christianity, Christians in Armenia did not adopt the idea of Masis as the landing site of the Ark until the arrival of Crusaders in the late 11th century. Thereafter, Armenians adopted the Western identification of Masis as "Mount Ararat," and relocated the Jacob of Nisibis legend to that peak.[28]:36 The angel's admonition to Jacob became a new explanation for the pre-Christian taboo against climbing the sacred mountain.[28]:37[34]:202–203[35]:214[36]:100 Regardless of this cultural impediment, other travelers claimed the summit was physically inaccessible, due to the permanent snow line and an abundance of precipices.[37]:25–26[38][39]:187

Late medieval reports from Ararat often mentioned the survival of Ark fragments, but there was less consensus about whether the vessel itself survived. Petachiah of Regensburg simply declared "the Ark is not there, for it has decayed."[40]:49 Just over a century later, however, Hayton of Corycus claimed that "on the mountain's summit something black is visible, which people say is the Ark."[38]

Sir Walter Raleigh objected to the view that the Ark landed in Armenia, arguing that the Armenian mountains could merely be a sub-range of "the mountains of Ararat." He proposed a definition of "Ararat" that would encompass the Taurus, Caucasus, Sariphi, and Paropamisus mountain ranges. This interpretation would allow the Ark to have landed to the east of Mesopotamia, which Raleigh felt was necessary to explain why Noah's descendants migrated to Shinar "from the east" in Genesis 11:2.[41]

19th-century

The first recorded ascent of Ararat was led by Friedrich Parrot in 1829.[42]:iv In his account of the expedition, Parrot wrote that "all the Armenians are firmly persuaded that Noah's Ark remains to this very day on the top of Ararat, and that, in order to preserve it, no human being is allowed to approach it."[42]:162

James Bryce scaled Ararat in 1876.[43]:293–294 On his ascent, he discovered "a piece of wood about four feet long and five inches thick, evidently cut by some tool, and so far above the limit of trees that it could by no possibility be a natural fragment of one." Bryce cut off a portion of the wood to keep, and later argued that it might plausibly be a remnant of Noah's ark. Although he admitted another explanation for the wood had occurred to him, he determined that "no man is bound to discredit his own relic."[43]:280–281

1883 New Zealand Herald hoax

On 26 March 1883, an avalanche was reported at Mount Ararat which destroyed several villages.[44][45][46][47] As an April Fools' Day joke, George McCullagh Reed, writing as "Pollex" for his opinion column in the New Zealand Herald, claimed that the avalanche had revealed the remains of Noah's Ark.[48][49][50]:59–60 Reed's story largely takes the form of a dispatch supposedly received from the Levant Herald in Constantinople, which he believed to have ceased operations several years earlier; in fact the paper had by that time relaunched as the Eastern Express.[51] The report describes the findings of "Comissioners appointed by the Turkish Government," including a nonexistent English scientist named "Captain Gascoyne," which had already been submitted to Sultan Abdul Hamid II and the German ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. A reference to "an enterprising American traveller" seeking to purchase the Ark for exhibition in the United States was intended by Reed to be recognized as P. T. Barnum.[48][52]

Over the next several months, Reed's prank was picked up by newspapers around the world.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60] While some publications presented the story tongue-in-cheek, others uncritically reprinted much of what Reed originally wrote, attributing it (as he had) to a correspondent in Constantinople. On 24 November, Reed wrote another column apologizing for the hoax and expressing amusement that the story had spread so far:[52][61]

"From the London Times to the Glasgow Herald, from the Leeds Mercury to the Pall Mall Gazette, through all the principal metropolitan and provincial journals in Britain and all over America my friend Captain Gascoyne and our Ark have been honoured with being handed on; but the editor of the Prophetic Messenger is to be credited with the greatest zeal in establishing the authenticity."[52]

Despite this retraction, the story has continued to be circulated, often referencing the Prophetic Messenger article, which Tim LaHaye and John D. Morris called "the most complete and accurate account of the discovery."[62]:56–63[63][64]:111[65][66]

John Joseph Nouri

John Joseph Nouri.

John Joseph Nouri claimed to have discovered Noah's Ark on the summit of Mount Ararat in April 1887.[67]:164–165[68]:39 Little else about him is known for certain. He was born in Baghdad in 1865, and in 1885 he was consecrated as an archdeacon in the Chaldean Catholic Church. During his tour of the United States, he attracted attention with his long list of formal titles: "His Pontifical Eminence, the most Venerable Prelate, Monseignior. The Zamorin Nouri. John Joseph Prince of Nouri, D.D, LL., D. (By Divine Providence.) Chaldean Patriarchal Archdeacon of Babylon and Jerusalem, Grand Apostolic Ambassador of Malabar, India and Persia. The Discoveror of Noah's Ark and the Golden Mountains of the Moon. The Sacred Crown's Supreme Representative General of the Holy Orthodox, Oriental, Patriarchal Imperiality of 900,000,000 People of Asia. The First Universal Exploring Traveler of One Million Miles."[69] Those who knew him, including J. O. Kinnaman, Frederick G. Coan, and John Henry Barrows, regarded him as a charismatic, well-traveled scholar who spoke multiple languages.[68]:41–45[67]:163[70]:299–300

In 1893 Nouri attended the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago.[67]:163–164 By his account, he was invited to the event to speak about his encounter with the Ark, although the official reports of the event do not say whether such a lecture occurred.[68]:46,52 Later that year, while visiting San Francisco, Nouri was robbed and left at the Napa Insane Asylum, which took him into custody as a patient.[68]:46[69] Although he eventually arranged his release, the incident raised questions about his mental state and, therefore, the legitimacy of his extraordinary claims. Upon researching the case for a 2014 paper, Emrah Şahin concluded that "Nouri, though of an unusual character, was sane."[71]:55–56 An 1897 report that Nouri had been crowned Patriarch at the Chaldean Pontifical Cathedral at Thrissur has been taken as vindication of his authenticity. Nevertheless, Turkish officials did not corroborate his claim of discovering Noah's Ark.[72]

20th century

Searches since the mid-20th century have been largely supported by evangelical, millenarian churches and sustained by ongoing popular interest, faith-based magazines, lecture tours, videos and occasional television specials.

Alleged Russian expedition

A popular rumor claims that Nicholas II of Russia sent troops to locate Noah's Ark c. 1916–17. The historicity of this story, however, is disputed.

According to one story, Nicholas II of Russia sent an expedition to Mount Ararat in 1916–1918 to investigate the Ark. Allegedly, the reports were turned in to Leon Trotsky, who destroyed them. However, this tale claims that the expedition was launched just as the Russian Revolution broke out in Russia; the fact that Nicholas abdicated during the February Revolution at the beginning of March 1917 (Gregorian calendar) makes the story unlikely. A few sources put the date of the expedition at 1916, ("the Russian imperial air force ... is supposed to have sent 150 men up Mount Ararat in 1916 to explore a large object said to be as long as a city block", reads one).[4]:8 The story seems to have been first brought to widespread attention in 1945, when the magazine New Eden published the story, attributed it to "Vladimire Roskovitsky".[64]:82–83 According to Robert Moore: "However, [after the story was printed and popularized in 1945] serious questions and criticisms arose, and the fabric of the tale quickly began unraveling. By 1945, New Eden, where [the story] initially appeared, and at least two other magazines [that had also published the story], had printed retractions".[4]:8 Despite the evidence against the story as it appeared in New Eden, the tale is still a popular one.

Aaron J. Smith

In 1949, Aaron J. Smith, dean of the People's Bible College in Greensboro, NC, led an unsuccessful expedition to locate the ark.[3]

Haji Yearam

In 1952, Pastor Harold Williams wrote a story he claimed had been told to him by Haji Yearam, an Armenian Seventh-Day Adventist who had moved to the United States. He let Williams take down his account four years before his death in 1920. According to the story, Yearam as a boy was with his father when they guided three English scientists to the ark in 1856. Upon finding the ark sticking out of a glacier near the summit of Ararat, these scientists were however dumbfounded and angry, since they were "vile men who did not believe in the Bible". Having come to Ararat to disprove the Scriptures, they now tried to destroy the ark, but were not able to. They then took an oath to keep the discovery a secret and murder anyone who revealed it. About 1918, Williams claimed he saw a newspaper article giving a scientist's deathbed confession, which independently corroborated Yearam's story. Harold Williams said he preserved both Yearam's account and the newspaper clipping until 1940, when both were lost in a fire, leaving the story hearsay on Williams's part. Despite a diligent search, the ca. 1918 newspaper article with the scientist's "confession" has never been located. The TalkOrigins Archive makes note of the seeming vilification of unbelievers and regards it as suggestive of "religious propaganda".[73] An academic study notes "the melodrama of Haji Yearam's tale".[11]:250

Fernand Navarra

In 1955, French explorer Fernand Navarra reportedly found a 5-foot wooden beam on Mount Ararat some 40 feet under the Parrot Glacier on the northwest slope and well above the treeline. The Forestry Institute of Research and Experiments of the Ministry of Agriculture in Spain certified the wood to be about 5,000 years old – a claim that is disputed by radio carbon dating, as two labs have dated the 1969 samples, one at 650 C.E. ± 50 years, the other at 630 C.E. ± 95 years.[74] Navarra's guide later revealed the French explorer bought the beam from a nearby village and carried it up the mountain.[75]

George Greene

Around 1960, helicopter pilot George Greene claimed to have observed the Ark on Ararat in 1953. It was lying on the side of a vertical rock cliff at the 13,000 to 14,000 ft. level. He photographed it from the air and tried to mount an expedition, but his photographs failed to convince any investors. Greene was found drowned in a swimming pool in British Guiana in 1962, and his photographs have not been seen since. In The Ararat Report, February 1990, Ark investigator Bill Crouse listed various "phantom arks" on the mountain, including a formation that "does look like the prow of a huge ship. In reality, it is a huge chunk of basalt. We believe this is also the 'ark' seen by George Greene in 1953."[76]

Georgie Hagopian

In 1970, an Armenian, Georgie Hagopian, claimed to have visited the Ark twice c. 1908–10 (1902 in another version, and 1906 according to a segment in the TV series Unsolved Mysteries) with his uncle. Hagopian claimed that he had climbed up onto the Ark and walked along its roof and that some of his young friends had also seen it. The online archive of talk.origins[77] notes that "[t]he apparent ease of getting to the ark conflicts with the accounts of other explorers."[78]

James Irwin

Former astronaut James Irwin led two expeditions to Ararat in the 1980s, and was kidnapped once, but found no tangible evidence of the Ark. "I've done all I possibly can," he said, "but the Ark continues to elude us."

Ed Davis

Ed Davis,[79] a US army sergeant based at Hamadan in Iran during World War II, reported in 1985 that he had climbed Mt. Ararat with his driver's family in 1943.[80] After three days' climbing, the group camped 100 feet above the Ark and was able to look down into it but not to approach closely. According to Davis's description, it had broken into two pieces, which had been pushed some distance apart by glaciers. Its description roughly matched Hagopian's, judging by Elfred Lee's paintings. Lee also interviewed Ed Davis and created a painting based on Davis's descriptions. The structures in the paintings appear to match.[81]

Durupınar site

The structure claimed to be Noah's Ark at the Durupınar site, Agri, Turkey

In the 1980s and 1990s, the Durupınar site was heavily promoted by Ron Wyatt. It receives a steady stream of visitors and according to the local authorities a nearby mountain is called "Mount Cudi" (or Judi), making it one of about five Mount Judis in the land of Kurdistan. Geologists have identified the Durupınar site as a natural formation.[82]

In the late 1990s, an Australian geologist, Ian Plimer, announced he would challenge creation scientists over the Durupinar site. Plimer sued under Australia's Trade Practices Act saying material from Sydney-based creationist Allen Roberts' "Ark Search" were "misleading and deceptive". The courts ruled that Roberts had made false claims, including a false claim to have commissioned or conducted research into the geological formation using sonar and false claims to have found nails and animal hairs. (Plimer said he found golf tees and other plastic trash in mud from the site. However, the judge ruled Roberts' work was not "trade or commerce" and dismissed the case, ordering Plimer to pay court costs.[83] Wyatt's Ark Discovery Institute continues to champion the structure being a gigantic fossilised boat.[84]

George Jammal hoax

On 20 February 1993, CBS aired a television special entitled The Incredible Discovery of Noah's Ark. Produced by Sun International Pictures, it was intended as an updated follow-up to In Search of Noah's Ark. Hosted by Darren McGavin, the special featured interviews with John C. Whitcomb, Philip C. Hammond, Charles Berlitz, David Coppedge, Carl Baugh and Tim LaHaye. One section was devoted to the claims of George Jammal, who showed what he called "sacred wood from the ark." Jammal's story of a dramatic mountain expedition which took the life of "his Polish friend Vladimir" was actually a deliberate hoax concocted with scholar Gerald Larue, and Jammal – who was really an actor – later revealed that his "sacred wood" was wood taken from railroad tracks in Long Beach, California and hardened by cooking with various sauces in an oven.[85][86][87]

21st century

In 2004, Honolulu-based businessman Daniel McGivern announced he would finance a $900,000 expedition to the peak of Greater Ararat in July of that year to investigate the "Ararat anomaly" – he had previously paid for commercial satellite images of the site.[5] After much initial fanfare, he was refused permission by the Turkish authorities, as the summit is inside a restricted military zone. The expedition was subsequently labelled a "stunt" by National Geographic News, which pointed out that the expedition leader, a Turkish academic named Ahmet Ali Arslan, had previously been accused of faking evidence of the Ark for a CBS documentary.[6]

Bob Cornuke

In June 2006, Bob Cornuke of the Bible Archeology Search and Exploration Institute (or BASE Institute) took a team of 14 American "business, law, and ministry leaders" to Iran to visit a site in the Alborz Mountains, purported to be a possible resting place of the Ark. The team claimed to have visited an "object" 13,000 feet above sea level, which had the appearance of blackened petrified wooden beams, and was "about the size of a small aircraft carrier" [400 ft long (120 m)], and supposedly consistent with the dimensions provided in Genesis of 300 cubits by 50 cubits.[88] BASE Institute identifies this site as the site found by Ed Davis.

The team also claimed to have found fossilised sea creatures inside the petrified wood, and in the immediate vicinity of the site.[89] No one outside the expedition has offered independent confirmation, and apart from a few purported beams, no photographic images of this supposed Ark in its entirety have been made available (though short video segments have been made available).[90] The team's consensus on the "object" is not absolute; Reg Lyle, another expedition member, described the find as appearing to be "a basalt dike".[89] BASE states that it does not claim to have found the Ark, only a "candidate".[91]

Noah's Ark Ministries International

In 2007, a joint Turkish-Hong Kong expedition including members of Noah's Ark Ministries International (NAMI) claimed to have found an unusual cave with fossilized wooden walls on Mount Ararat, well above the vegetation line.[92] In 2010, NAMI released videos of their discovery of the wood structures.[93] Members of Noah's Ark Ministries International reported carbon dating suggests the wood is approximately 4,800 years old. It is unlikely that there was any human settlement at the site at altitude of 4,000 meters.[94]

Randall Price, a partner with Noah's Ark Ministries International from early 2008 to the summer of 2008, stated that the discovery was probably the result of a hoax, perpetrated by ten Kurdish workers hired by the Turkish guide used by the Chinese, who planted large wood beams taken from an old structure near the Black Sea at the cave site.[95][96] In a response to Price, Noah's Ark Ministries International stated that they had terminated co-operation with Price in early October 2008, and that he had never been in the location of the wooden structure they identified, and regretted his absence in their find. On their website they say they asked for the opinion of Mr. Muhsin Bulut, the Director of Cultural Ministries, Agri Province. The web site says that his response was that secretly transporting such an amount of timber to the strictly monitored area and planting a large wood structure at an altitude of 4,000 metres would have been impossible.[97] At the end of April 2010, it was reported that Turkey's culture minister ordered a probe into how NAMI brought its pieces of wood samples from Turkey to China.[98] A Scottish explorer investigating the NAMI claim was reported missing, on 14 October 2010, from an expedition on Ararat. His last camp site and personal effects were subsequently located but the circumstances remain unresolved.[99]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Cummings, Violet M., Noah's Ark: Fable or Fact?, (1972) ISBN 0-8007-8183-X

External links

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