| Orthonectida | |
|---|---|
) | |
| Two different female Orthonectids | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Subkingdom: | Eumetazoa |
| Clade: | ParaHoxozoa |
| Clade: | Bilateria |
| Clade: | Nephrozoa |
| (unranked): | Protostomia |
| (unranked): | Spiralia |
| Clade: | Platytrochozoa |
| (unranked): | Mesozoa |
| Phylum: | Orthonectida Giard, 1877 [1][2] |
| Species | |
Orthonectida (/ˌɔːrθəˈnɛktɪdə, -θoʊ-/[3]) is a small phylum of poorly known parasites of marine invertebrates[4] that are among the simplest of multi-cellular organisms. Members of this phylum are known as orthonectids.
Biology
The adults are microscopic wormlike animals, consisting of a single layer of ciliated outer cells surrounding a mass of sex cells. They swim freely within the bodies of their hosts, which include flatworms, polychaete worms, bivalve molluscs, and echinoderms. They are gonochoristic, with separate male and female individuals.[5]
When they are ready to reproduce, the adults leave the host, and sperm from the males penetrate the bodies of the females to achieve internal fertilisation. The resulting zygote develops into a ciliated larva that escapes from the mother to seek out new hosts. Once it finds a host, the larva loses its cilia and develops into a syncytial plasmodium larva. This, in turn, breaks up into numerous individual cells that become the next generation of adults.[5][6]
Classification
The phylum consists of about 20 known species, of which Rhopalura ophiocomae is the best-known.[4] The phylum is not divided into classes or orders, and contains just two families.
Although originally described in 1877 as a class,[7] and sometimes characterized as an order of the phylum Mesozoa, recent study shows that orthonectids are quite different from the rhombozoans, the other group in Mesozoa.[4] The genome of one species, Intoshia linei, has been sequenced.[8] These animals are simplified spiralians. Their position in the phylogenetic tree has yet to be determined. The genome data confirms the earlier proposal that these organisms are spiralians based on their morphology.[9]
They appear to be related to the Annelida.[10][6] Of the Annelida this taxon appears to be most closely related to the Clitellata.[11]
Known species
Phylum Orthonectida
- Family Rhopaluridae Stunkard, 1937
- Ciliocincta akkeshiensis Tajika, 1979 – Hokkaido, Japan; in flatworms (Turbellaria)
- Ciliocincta julini (Caullery and Mesnil, 1899) – E North Atlantic, in polychaetes
- Ciliocincta sabellariae Kozloff, 1965 – San Juan Islands, WA (USA); in polychaete (Neosabellaria cementarium)
- Intoshia leptoplanae Giard, 1877 – E North Atlantic, in flatworms (Leptoplana)
- Intoshia linei Giard, 1877 – E North Atlantic, in nemertines (Lineus) = Rhopalura linei
- Intoshia major Shtein, 1953 – Arctic Ocean; in gastropods (Lepeta, Natica, Solariella) = Rhopalura major
- Intoshia metchnikovi (Caullery & Mesnil, 1899) – E North Atlantic, in polychaetes and nemertines
- Intoshia paraphanostomae (Westblad, 1942) – E North Atlantic, in flatworms (Acoela)
- Intoshia variabili (Alexandrov & Sljusarev, 1992) – Arctic Ocean, in flatworms (Macrorhynchus)
- Rhopalura elongata Shtein, 1953 – Arctic Ocean, in bivalves (Astarte)
- Rhopalura gigas (Giard, 1877)
- Rhopalura granosa Atkins, 1933 – E North Atlantic, in bivalves (Pododesmus)
- Rhopalura intoshi Metchnikoff – Mediterranean, in nemertines
- Rhopalura litoralis Shtein, 1953 – Arctic Ocean, in gastropods (Lepeta, Natica, Solariella)
- Rhopalura major Shtein, 1953
- Rhopalura murmanica Shtein, 1953 – Arctic Ocean, in gastropods (Rissoa, Columbella)
- Rhopalura ophiocomae Giard, 1877 – E North Atlantic, in ophiuroids (usually Amphipholis)
- Rhopalura pelseneeri Caullery & Mesnil, 1901 – E North Atlantic, polychaetes and nemertines
- Rhopalura philinae Lang, 1954 – E North Atlantic, in gastropods
- Rhopalura pterocirri de Saint-Joseph, 1896 – E North Atlantic, in polychaetes
- Rhopalura vermiculicola
- Stoecharthrum burresoni Kozloff, 1993
- Stoecharthrum fosterae Kozloff, 1993
- Stoecharthrum giardi Caullery & Mesnil, 1899 – E North Atlantic, in polychaetes
- Stoecharthrum monnati Kozloff, 1993 – E North Atlantic, in molluscs
- Family Pelmatosphaeridae Stunkard, 1937
- Pelmatosphaera polycirri Caullery and Mesnil, 1904 – E North Atlantic, in polychaetes and nemertines
References
- ^ H. Furuya & J. van der Land (2010). "Orthonectida". World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
- ^ "Orthonectida Giard, 1877". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
- ^ "Orthonectida". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
- ^ a b c Hanelt, B; Van Schyndel, D; Adema, C. M; Lewis, L. A; Loker, E. S (1996). "The phylogenetic position of Rhopalura ophiocomae (Orthonectida) based on 18S ribosomal DNA sequence analysis". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 13 (9): 1187–91. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025683. PMID 8896370.
- ^ a b Robert D. Barnes (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 247–248. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
- ^ a b Zverkov, Oleg A.; Mikhailov, Kirill V.; Isaev, Sergey V.; Rusin, Leonid Y.; Popova, Olga V.; Logacheva, Maria D.; Penin, Alexey A.; Moroz, Leonid L.; Panchin, Yuri V.; Lyubetsky, Vassily A.; Aleoshin, Vladimir V. (24 May 2019). "Dicyemida and Orthonectida: Two Stories of Body Plan Simplification". Frontiers in Genetics. 10: 443. doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00443. PMC 6543705. PMID 31178892.
- ^ Alfred Mathieu Giard (1877). "Sur les Orthonectida, classe nouvelle d'animaux parasites des Échinodermes et des Turbellariés" [On Orthonectida, a new class of parasitic animals of Echinoderms and Turbellarians]. Comptes Rendus (in French). 85 (18): 812–814.
- ^ Mikhailov, Kirill V; Slyusarev, Georgy S; Nikitin, Mikhail A; Logacheva, Maria D; Penin, Aleksey A; Aleoshin, Vladimir V; Panchin, Yuri V (2016). "The Genome of Intoshia linei Affirms Orthonectids as Highly Simplified Spiralians". Current Biology. 26 (13): 1768–74. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.05.007. PMID 27374341.
- ^ Sliusarev, G. S (2008). "Тип ортонектида (Orthonectida): строение, биология, положение в системе многоклеточных животных" [Phylum Orthonectida: Morphology, biology, and relationships to other multicellular animals]. Zhurnal Obshchei Biologii (in Russian). 69 (6): 403–27. PMID 19140332.
- ^ Bondarenko, N.; Bondarenko, A.; Starunov, V.; Slyusarev, G. (8 March 2019). "Comparative analysis of the mitochondrial genomes of Orthonectida: insights into the evolution of an invertebrate parasite species". Molecular Genetics and Genomics. 294 (3): 715–727. doi:10.1007/s00438-019-01543-1. PMID 30848356.
- ^ Slyusarev, George S.; Starunov, Viktor V.; Bondarenko, Anton S.; Zorina, Natalia A.; Bondarenko, Natalya I. (April 2020). "Extreme Genome and Nervous System Streamlining in the Invertebrate Parasite Intoshia variabili". Current Biology. 30 (7): 1292–1298.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.01.061. PMID 32084405.