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Outline of thought

(redirected from List of decision-making processes)
A thinking chimpanzee

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

Thought (also called thinking) is the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling.

Nature of thought

Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

  • An activity taking place in a:
    • brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
    • computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
  • An activity of intelligence – intelligence is the intellectual process of which is marked by cognition, motivation, and self-awareness.[3] Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
    • A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
  • Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism[4]
    • Neural Network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire. These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity. For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network. The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons. The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

Types of thoughts

  • Concept – Mental representation or an abstract object
    • Abstract concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
    • Concrete concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
  • Conjecture – Proposition in mathematics that is unproven
  • Decision (see Decision-making)
  • Definition – Statement that attaches a meaning to a term
  • Explanation – Set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies causes
  • Hypothesis – Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
  • Idea – Mental image or concept
  • Logical argument
  • Logical assertion
  • Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
  • Percept / Perception
  • Premise – Statement that an argument claims will induce or justify a conclusion
  • Proposition – Non-linguistic meaning of a sentence
  • Syllogism – Type of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning
  • Theory – Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something
  • Thought experiment – Considering hypothesis, theory, or principle for the purpose of thinking through its consequences

Content of thoughts

  • Argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
  • Belief – Psychological state of holding a proposition or premise to be true
  • Communication – Act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and rules
  • Data – individual units of information
  • Information – That which informs; the answer to a question of some kind; that from which data and knowledge can be derived
  • Knowledge – Familiarity, awareness, or understanding of information or skills acquired through experience or education
  • Schema – Pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought

Further information: Animal cognition and Animal intelligence

Human thought

Human thought

  • Analysis
  • Awareness – State or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
  • Calculation – Arithmetical calculations using only the human brain
    • Estimation – Process of finding an approximation, which is a value that is usable for some purpose, though uncertain
  • Categorization – A process in which ideas and objects are grouped according to their characteristics and the relationships between them
  • Cognitive restructuring
  • Computational thinking
  • Convergent thinking
  • Counterfactual thinking
  • Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
  • Data thinking
  • Evaluation – A systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance,
  • Habit – Routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously
  • Integrative thinking
  • Internal monologue (surface thoughts)
  • Introspection – Examining one's own thoughts and feelings
  • Learning – Any process in an organism in which a relatively long-lasting adaptive behavioral change occurs as the result of experience and memory
  • Parallel thinking
  • Prediction – Statement about a future event
  • Recollection
  • Stochastic thinking
  • Strategic thinking
  • Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or practice
  • Visual thinking

Classifications of thought

Creative processes

Decision-making

Main article: Decision-making

Erroneous thinking

See also: Error and Human error

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking)

Emotional intelligence – Capability to understand one's emotions and use it to guide thinking and behavior

Problem solving

Problem solving – Generic and ad hoc approach to problem solving

  • Problem solving steps
  • Process of elimination
  • Systems thinking
    • Critical systems thinking
  • Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
    • Abstraction – Conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
    • Analogy – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
    • Brainstorming – Group creativity technique – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
    • Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
    • Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
    • Lateral thinking – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
      • Oblique Strategies – Set of cards intended to promote creativity
      • Parallel thinking
      • Provocative operation
      • Six Thinking Hats
    • Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
    • Method of focal objects – synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new
    • Morphological analysis – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
    • Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
    • Reduction – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
    • Research – Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
    • Root cause analysis – Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems – identifying the cause of a problem
    • Thinking outside the box – A metaphor for unconventional thinking
    • Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
    • Troubleshooting – Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes –
  • Problem-solving methodology

Reasoning

Reasoning

  • Abstract thinking – Conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples
  • Adaptive reasoning
  • Analogical reasoning – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
  • Analytic reasoning
  • Case-based reasoning
  • Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
  • Defeasible reasoning – Reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
  • Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
  • Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
  • Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors
  • Heuristic – Problem-solving method that is sufficient for immediate solutions or approximationss
  • Historical thinking
  • Intuitive reasoning
  • Lateral thinking
  • Logic – The study of inference and truth / Logical reasoning
    • Abductive reasoning – Form of logical inference which seeks the simplest and most likely explanation – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
    • Deductive reasoning – Method of reasoning by which premises understood to be true produce logically certain conclusions – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
    • Inductive reasoning – Method of logical reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if p then q"; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
    • Inference – Act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true
  • Moral reasoning – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
  • Probabilistic reasoning – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
  • Proportional reasoning – using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."[6]
  • Rational thinking
  • Semiosis
  • Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
  • Strategic thinking
  • Synthetic reasoning
  • Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
  • Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms

Machine thought

Main articles: Machine thought and Outline of artificial intelligence

Organizational thought

Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

Aspects of the thinker

Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

  • Ability – Ability to influence the behavior of others
  • Aptitude – Ability; competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level
  • Attitude – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
  • Behavior – Way that one acts in different situations
  • Cognitive style
  • Common sense – Sound practical judgement concerning everyday matters; basic ability to perceive, understand, and judge
  • Experience – The effect or influence of exposure to an event or subject
  • Instinct – Inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior
  • Intelligence – Ability to perceive, infer, retain, or apply information
  • Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
  • Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
  • Mindset – Term in decision theory and general systems theory
  • Preference
  • Rationality
  • Skill – The ability to carry out a task
  • Wisdom – The ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight

Properties of thought

  • Accuracy and precision – Closeness to true value or to each other
  • Cogency
  • Dogma – A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.
  • Effectiveness – Capability of producing the desired result
  • Efficacy – Able to finish something satisfactorly
  • Efficiency – Degree to which a process minimizes waste of resources
  • Freethought
  • Frugality
  • Meaning
  • Prudence
  • Rights – Fundamental legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory
  • Skepticism – Questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief
  • Soundness – Logical term meaning that an argument is valid and its premises are true
  • Validity – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are
  • Value theory
  • Wrongdoing – Act that is illegals or immoral

Fields that study thought

  • Linguistics – Study of human language
  • Philosophy – Study of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct
    • Logic – The study of inference and truth
    • Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of the mind
  • Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system
    • Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes
    • Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviours
    • Psychiatry – Branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, of mental disorders
  • Mathematics – Field of study
  • Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods

Thought tools and thought research

  • Cognitive model
  • Design tool
  • Diagram – Symbolic representation of information using visualization techniques
  • DSRP
  • Intelligence amplification
  • Language – Capacity to communicate using signs, such as words or gestures
  • Meditation – Mental practice of focus on a particular object, thought or activity to improve one's mind
  • Six Thinking Hats
  • Synectics

History of thinking

History of reasoning

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Nootropic – Drug, supplement, or other substance that improves cognitive function

See also: List of nootropics

Substances that improve mental performance:

Organizational thinking concepts

Main articles: Organizational studies and Industrial and organizational psychology

Teaching methods and skills

Main article: Education

Awards related to thinking

Awards for acts of genius

  • Nobel Prize – Set of annual international awards, primarily 5 established in 1895 by Alfred Nobel
  • Pulitzer Prize – Award for achievements in journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States
  • MacArthur Fellows Program – prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Organizations

Media

Publications

Books

Periodicals

Television programs

  • Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

Persons associated with thinking

People notable for their extraordinary ability to think

Scientists in fields that study thought

Scholars of thinking

Related concepts

Awareness and perception

Main articles: Awareness and Perception

Learning and memory

Main articles: Education, Learning, and Memory

See also

Miscellaneous

Thinking

Lists

References

  1. ^ Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."
  2. ^ Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness." [1]
  3. ^ Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.
  4. ^ Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".
  5. ^ "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
  6. ^ "Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".
  7. ^ "History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

External links

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