Goitrogens are substances that disrupt the production of thyroid hormones by interfering with iodine uptake in the thyroid gland. This triggers the pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which then promotes the growth of thyroid tissue, eventually leading to goiter.[1]
Goitrogenic drugs and chemicals
Chemicals that have been shown to have goitrogenic effects include:
- Sulfadimethoxine (Albon),[2] propylthiouracil,[3] potassium perchlorate,[4] and iopanoic acid.[5]
- Some oxazolidines such as goitrin.[6]
- Ions such as thiocyanate[7] (from cigarette smoking for example[8]) and perchlorate decrease iodide uptake by competitive inhibition and, as a consequence of reduced thyroxine and triiodothyronine secretion by the gland, cause, at low doses, an increased release of thyrotropin (by reduced negative feedback), which then stimulates the gland.
- Amiodarone inhibits peripheral conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine; also interferes with thyroid hormone action.
- Lithium inhibits thyroid hormone release.
- Phenobarbitone, phenytoin, carbamazepine, rifampin induce metabolic degradation of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
Goitrogenic foods
Foods which have been demonstrated to have goitrogenic effects include soy, cassava (when crushed and not detoxified by soaking,[7]) vegetables in the genus Brassica (such as broccoli and cabbage),[9] and other cruciferous vegetables.[10] In places where iodine deficiency exists in tandem with millet being a major component of the diet, millet consumption can contribute to thyroid enlargement which is the start of endemic goiter.[11]
See also
References
- ^ Bender, David A. (2009). "Goitrogens". A dictionary of food and nutrition (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199234875.
- ^ "Goitrogenic effects in offspring of swine fed sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim in late gestation".
- ^ Rosenfeld H, Ornoy A, Shechtman S, Diav-Citrin O (2009). "Pregnancy outcome, thyroid dysfunction and fetal goitre after in utero exposure to propylthiouracil: a controlled cohort study". Br J Clin Pharmacol. 68 (4): 609–17. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2009.03495.x. PMC 2780286. PMID 19843064.
- ^ Soldin OP, Braverman LE, Lamm SH (2001). "Perchlorate Clinical Pharmacology and Human Health: A Review". Ther Drug Monit. 23 (4): 316–31. doi:10.1097/00007691-200108000-00002. PMC 3640367. PMID 11477312.
- ^ Andreucci M, Solomon R, Tasanarong A (2014). "Side Effects of Radiographic Contrast Media: Pathogenesis, Risk Factors, and Prevention". Biomed Res Int. 2014: 741018. doi:10.1155/2014/741018. PMC 4034507. PMID 24895606.
- ^ Verhoeven DT, Verhagen H, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, van Poppel G (February 1997). "A review of mechanisms underlying anticarcinogenicity by brassica vegetables". Chem. Biol. Interact. 103 (2): 79–129. doi:10.1016/S0009-2797(96)03745-3. PMID 9055870.
- ^ a b Vanderpas J (2006). "Nutritional epidemiology and thyroid hormone metabolism". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 26: 293–322. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.26.010506.103810. PMID 16704348.
- ^ Erdogan MF (2003). "Thiocyanate overload and thyroid disease". BioFactors (Review). 19 (3–4): 107–11. doi:10.1002/biof.5520190302. PMID 14757960.
- ^ Mitchell, Richard Sheppard; Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
- ^ Gaitan, Eduardo (July 1990). "Goitrogens in Food and Water". Annual Review of Nutrition. 10 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.10.070190.000321. PMID 1696490.
- ^ Eduardo Gaitan; Raymond, H. Lindsay; Robert D. Reichert; Sidney H. Ingbar; Robert C. Cooksey; Jim Legan; Edward F. Meydrech; John Hill; Ken Kubota (1989). "Antithyroid and Goitrogenic Effects of Millet: Role of C-Glycosylflavones". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 68 (4): 707–714. doi:10.1210/jcem-68-4-707. PMID 2921306.